TESTING FOR FAULTS ON COMPONENTS
Checking Components
When using an analog instrument to test a diode,
the needle will swing almost fully across the scale when the diode is
placed in one direction and hardly move when the diode is
reversed.
The needle does not measure the resistance of the diode but rather the flow of current in one direction and no current-flow in the other direction.
If the value is equal to or near equal, either low or high in both directions, the diode is faulty, and should be replaced.
From
the equation above, it is clear that varying of the frequency is
possible by varying the resistor or capacitor value. Frequency rise is
achieved by lowering the resistance or capacitance of the circuit, and
vice versa, rising the values of the resistor or capacitor, lowers the
oscillator frequency. Active variation of the frequency base is
possible by replacing the resistor with a several hundred kiloohm
trimmer potentiometer. If such modification of the circuit was needed,
special care must be taken not to set the trimmer into it's lowest
position since this means zero resistance, and that could burn the
transistors. To avoid unnecessary care and further complicating the
operation of this straightforward device, low value resistor could be
connected to the trimmer in series. This resistor would act as a
protection for transistors inside of the circuit since it facilitates a
minimum resistance, and thus doesn't leave transistors bare in the
frying pan when the trimmer is in it's lowest position.
In this example we used an 1.5V battery for supply, but it is possible to plug this instrument on any battery between 1.5V and 9V.
Current flowing through the component that is being tested is lower than I=U/R, where U is the voltage of the supply battery, and R is the resistance of the resistor in the base circuit. In our example, these values are U=1,5 V i R=47 kW, which means that current flow is I=32 micro amperes, which is very low, so tested component is safe from harm from this device.
Oscillator's printed board design is on 12.2. This is viewed from the copper plated side of the board, components are placed on the other side, so their positions are marked in dotted lines. Component side of the board is on 12.2.
Printed
board, battery and the speaker are placed in a small box, as shown on
12.3. Miniature speaker is fixed to the upper pane of the box using two
wood screws. It is connected to the circuit board using two threaded
isolated wires. Same wires are used for all other connections as well.
Battery is connected to the board using these wires, for example. In
our example, wires are soldered directly to the poles of the battery,
and the board fixed inside of the box using wood screws and two
rectangular wooden pads glued to the bottom of the box, leaving just
enough space to squeeze the battery in. These are not proper solutions,
they are cheap “hacks” used when other options are limited. But these
are functional for people who always have their trusty soldering iron
at hand. What would be a proper solution? Buying a battery holder (with
enough battery slots as needed) or battery clips (for those square 9V
batteries) would simplify the process of changing the battery, although
this circuit is very low in power consumption. Other thing is plastic
or metal mounts for boards, these are pretty cheap and you should keep
them at hand in your “junk box” when experimenting with electronics.
On
the front side of the box, we drilled two holes, one for the switch
and the other for wires which hold probes on their ends. Probes are
cheap components and come in various shapes and sizes with various
purposes in mind. Since we've been applying dirty methods, like
soldering the battery, there is no reason why we should back from
building our own probes now. Any old marker-pen will do, just slip
thicker copper wire through it's center, and sand/grind/cut protruding
ends into a pointy tip. It is advisable to make probes in different
colors, red and black are dominant standards for distinguishing them.
Positive probe (red) is connected to point A, and negative one (black)
is connected to the point B. You could use alligator clips instead of
probes, for example, this would leave your hands free for other
purposes, but for some precise testing of the on-board components, go
with the more precise probes we already mentioned.
Give your new instrument the initial self-test (battery might be empty, or some other unexpected thing happened) by connecting the probe tips together. If sound is heard from the speaker, everything is fine and ready for work.
Ok, everything is working, now you want to play with your new toy. Check, for example, conductivity of your own body. Hold probe tips between thumb and index finger of your left and right hand. What you hear is a sound whose level and especially frequency depend on your skin moistness. Wow, now instrument could be used as a very crude an inaccurate lie detector. This probably wouldn't be accepted in a court of law, but may be an interesting game you play on your friends. “Suspect” holds in his/hers hands probes which could be made of a metal pipe for this occasion. Pipe should be wide enough so that a large portion of palm surface is actually in contact with metal. When the suspect starts dodging questions or lying, his palms start sweating more than usual, and the tone produced by our “lie detector” is higher than usual.
So you've put a circuit together and as far as you know
everything appears to be ok, but it doesn't work as expected. Even worse,
it refuses to give any signs of life. What do you do? First, check
the circuit for mechanical failures, like non-connected wires, broken vias
on the board (these are holes on the printed circuit board that have a
metal coating down the length of the hole to connect one side of the
board to the other), bad battery contacts inside the case, broken pins
on a
component, cold solder joints, etc.
If this doesn't come up with a result, you should compare values of components with the schematic.
You may have put a component in the wrong place, or read values the wrong way. Maybe you forgot k in front of Ohms. Maybe you connected the supply to the wrong pin of an IC.
The next step is to test each component on the board.
Start troubleshooting by measuring DC voltages at certain points of the board, and comparing these values to the schematic. So, by knowing the operation of the circuit you start the process of elimination to find the “suspect” component.
If there are several “suspects”, and this is not a rare occurrence in complex devices, the testing is divided into groups of components. You start checking in reverse soldering order, this means you start with components last soldered, because those are the most sensitive components on the circuit like integrated circuits, transistors, diodes, etc.
The fastest and simplest method to troubleshoot is to use an “ohm-meter.”
In most cases you don't have an ohm-meter by itself as it is usually aded to an ammeter and voltmeter in one instrument, called AVO meter or multimeter.
The safest and most accurate method is to desolder the component from the board when testing it, because other components could lead to a wrong diagnosis, so you have to be very careful when testing in-circuit.
Ok, you should know something about multimeters now. There are
two kinds: analog and digital. Analog ones are items of the past,
and since they use a needle to tell you values, it can be difficult
determining the right value. Digital meters, on the other hand have a
display. You should go for this type, although both come in different sizes and with different
ranges. Their
price is from several dollars, to several hundreds of dollars for really
good professional types.
Two instruments are shown in 11.1.
If this doesn't come up with a result, you should compare values of components with the schematic.
You may have put a component in the wrong place, or read values the wrong way. Maybe you forgot k in front of Ohms. Maybe you connected the supply to the wrong pin of an IC.
The next step is to test each component on the board.
Start troubleshooting by measuring DC voltages at certain points of the board, and comparing these values to the schematic. So, by knowing the operation of the circuit you start the process of elimination to find the “suspect” component.
If there are several “suspects”, and this is not a rare occurrence in complex devices, the testing is divided into groups of components. You start checking in reverse soldering order, this means you start with components last soldered, because those are the most sensitive components on the circuit like integrated circuits, transistors, diodes, etc.
The fastest and simplest method to troubleshoot is to use an “ohm-meter.”
In most cases you don't have an ohm-meter by itself as it is usually aded to an ammeter and voltmeter in one instrument, called AVO meter or multimeter.
The safest and most accurate method is to desolder the component from the board when testing it, because other components could lead to a wrong diagnosis, so you have to be very careful when testing in-circuit.
Ok, you should know something about multimeters now. There are
two kinds: analog and digital. Analog ones are items of the past,
and since they use a needle to tell you values, it can be difficult
determining the right value. Digital meters, on the other hand have a
display. You should go for this type, although both come in different sizes and with different
ranges. Their
price is from several dollars, to several hundreds of dollars for really
good professional types. Two instruments are shown in 11.1.
Diodes and Transistors
When using an analog instrument to test a diode,
the needle will swing almost fully across the scale when the diode is
placed in one direction and hardly move when the diode is
reversed. The needle does not measure the resistance of the diode but rather the flow of current in one direction and no current-flow in the other direction.
If the value is equal to or near equal, either low or high in both directions, the diode is faulty, and should be replaced.
Digital
instruments have a position on the dial to measure diodes, as shown in 11.1b. When we connect probes to each other,
the
multimeter should buzz, which signals a short circuit, and display
tells 0. When we separate the probes the buzzing stops, and a symbol for open
circuit is displayed (this can be either 0L or 1). Now we 
connect
probes to the diode (11.3a). Then we reverse the diode and connect it again
(11.3b). If the measured diode was ok, one of the two measurements would
have shown a value which represents a minimum voltage that could be
conducted through the diode (between 400mV and 800mV), and the anode is
the end of the diode which is connected to probe A (red one). The diode is
faulty if you hear a buzz (closed circuit) or some value which represents
infinity.
Transistors are tested in a similar fashion, since they act as two connected diodes. According to 11.4b, the positive probe is connected to the base, and the negative probe is first connected to the collector and then the emitter. In both cases the resistance should be low. After that, you do the same thing, only with switched probes. The negative probe is connected to the base and you test the collector and emitter with a positive probe.
Both cases should produce a high value on the meter.
When testing
PNP transistors, all steps are the same, but the measurements should be
opposite: on 11.4a they are high, and on 11.4c they are low.
If you test transistors using a digital instrument, the process remains similar to the one with diodes. Each diode should produce a value between 400mV and 800mV. Many modern digital multimeters have a socket for testing transistors. There is, as displayed on 11.5, a special socket where low and medium power transistors fit. If you need to test high power transistors, thin wires (0.8mm) should be soldered to transistor's pins and then plugged into the socket. As displayed on 11.5, a transistor is plugged into the socket according to its type (PNP or NPN) and the switch with a hFE marking is brought into position. If the transistor works, the display shows a value which represents the current amplification coefficient. If, for example, a transistor is tested, and the display shows 74, this means the collector current is 74 times higher than the base current.
connect
probes to the diode (11.3a). Then we reverse the diode and connect it again
(11.3b). If the measured diode was ok, one of the two measurements would
have shown a value which represents a minimum voltage that could be
conducted through the diode (between 400mV and 800mV), and the anode is
the end of the diode which is connected to probe A (red one). The diode is
faulty if you hear a buzz (closed circuit) or some value which represents
infinity.Transistors are tested in a similar fashion, since they act as two connected diodes. According to 11.4b, the positive probe is connected to the base, and the negative probe is first connected to the collector and then the emitter. In both cases the resistance should be low. After that, you do the same thing, only with switched probes. The negative probe is connected to the base and you test the collector and emitter with a positive probe.
Both cases should produce a high value on the meter.
When testing
PNP transistors, all steps are the same, but the measurements should be
opposite: on 11.4a they are high, and on 11.4c they are low.If you test transistors using a digital instrument, the process remains similar to the one with diodes. Each diode should produce a value between 400mV and 800mV. Many modern digital multimeters have a socket for testing transistors. There is, as displayed on 11.5, a special socket where low and medium power transistors fit. If you need to test high power transistors, thin wires (0.8mm) should be soldered to transistor's pins and then plugged into the socket. As displayed on 11.5, a transistor is plugged into the socket according to its type (PNP or NPN) and the switch with a hFE marking is brought into position. If the transistor works, the display shows a value which represents the current amplification coefficient. If, for example, a transistor is tested, and the display shows 74, this means the collector current is 74 times higher than the base current.
Transformers and coils
Transformers are tested by measuring the resistance
of the copper wire on the primary and secondary. Since the primary
has more turns than the secondary, and is wound using a thinner
wire, its resistance is higher, and its value is in range of tens of ohms (in high power
transformers) to several hundreds of ohms.
Secondary resistance is lower and is in range between several ohms to several tens of ohms, where the principle of inverse relations is still in place, high power means low resistance.
If the multimeter shows an infinite value, it means the coil is either poorly connected or the turns are disconnected at some point.
Coils can be tested in the same way as transformers – through their resistance. All principles remain the same as with transformers. Infinite resistance means an open winding.
Secondary resistance is lower and is in range between several ohms to several tens of ohms, where the principle of inverse relations is still in place, high power means low resistance.
If the multimeter shows an infinite value, it means the coil is either poorly connected or the turns are disconnected at some point.
Coils can be tested in the same way as transformers – through their resistance. All principles remain the same as with transformers. Infinite resistance means an open winding.
Capacitors
Capacitors should produce an infinite reading on a
multimeter. Exceptions are electrolytics and very high value block
capacitors. When the positive end of an electrolytic capacitor is
connected to the positive probe of an analog instrument, and a negative end
to a negative probe, the needle moves slightly and gradually
comes back towards infinity. This is proof the capacitor is ok, and
the needle's movement is charge being stored in the capacitor. (Even small capacitors get charged while testing.)
Variable capacitors are tested by connecting an ohm-meter to them, and turning the rotor. The needle should point to infinity at all times, because any other value means the plates of the rotor and stator are touching at some point.
There are digital meters that have the ability to measure capacitance, which simplifies the process. With this said, it is worth mentioning that capacitors have considerably wider tolerance than resistors, (about 20%).
Variable capacitors are tested by connecting an ohm-meter to them, and turning the rotor. The needle should point to infinity at all times, because any other value means the plates of the rotor and stator are touching at some point.
There are digital meters that have the ability to measure capacitance, which simplifies the process. With this said, it is worth mentioning that capacitors have considerably wider tolerance than resistors, (about 20%).
Potentiometers
To test a potentiometer, (pot), or a variable
resistor, the process is rather simple – you connect the component to the probes
of a meter set to ohms and turn the shaft.
(A “noisy” pot can be repaired using a special spray.)
(A “noisy” pot can be repaired using a special spray.)
Speakers and headphones
When testing speakers, their voice-coil can be between
1.5 and 32 Ohms. The value marked on the speaker is an impedance value
and the actual DC resistance will be lower. When measuring a speaker
with an analogue meter, you should hear a click when the probes are
connected.
Conductivity probe
Conductivity tester is a simple, but
very important instrument, which is able to test for faults many
components like: diodes, transistors, coils, transformers, speakers and
headphones, capacitors, switches, jumpers, cables and many other
different electronic components. This method is a lot faster and
straightforward than it is using some “off the shelf” instrument.
Schematic for this device is on 12.1a. It is called a relaxation audio oscillator. When you connect points A and B using a piece of copper wire, a variable current flows through the transistors as sequences of impulses. This means that immediately upon connecting the points A and B, current level rapidly rises to some destined maximum value, and then drops to zero. For certain amount of time there is no current, after which it rises again rapidly, and whole cycle repeats itself. Since relation of times when current is flowing and when it is not is highly in favor of the later, this kind of current is called the spike impulse current. Collector current of a T2 transistor flows through the speaker which generates sound, whose base frequency could be calculated using this approximate equation.
Schematic for this device is on 12.1a. It is called a relaxation audio oscillator. When you connect points A and B using a piece of copper wire, a variable current flows through the transistors as sequences of impulses. This means that immediately upon connecting the points A and B, current level rapidly rises to some destined maximum value, and then drops to zero. For certain amount of time there is no current, after which it rises again rapidly, and whole cycle repeats itself. Since relation of times when current is flowing and when it is not is highly in favor of the later, this kind of current is called the spike impulse current. Collector current of a T2 transistor flows through the speaker which generates sound, whose base frequency could be calculated using this approximate equation.
In our case R=47 kOhm and C=47 nF, which means:
From
the equation above, it is clear that varying of the frequency is
possible by varying the resistor or capacitor value. Frequency rise is
achieved by lowering the resistance or capacitance of the circuit, and
vice versa, rising the values of the resistor or capacitor, lowers the
oscillator frequency. Active variation of the frequency base is
possible by replacing the resistor with a several hundred kiloohm
trimmer potentiometer. If such modification of the circuit was needed,
special care must be taken not to set the trimmer into it's lowest
position since this means zero resistance, and that could burn the
transistors. To avoid unnecessary care and further complicating the
operation of this straightforward device, low value resistor could be
connected to the trimmer in series. This resistor would act as a
protection for transistors inside of the circuit since it facilitates a
minimum resistance, and thus doesn't leave transistors bare in the
frying pan when the trimmer is in it's lowest position.In this example we used an 1.5V battery for supply, but it is possible to plug this instrument on any battery between 1.5V and 9V.
Current flowing through the component that is being tested is lower than I=U/R, where U is the voltage of the supply battery, and R is the resistance of the resistor in the base circuit. In our example, these values are U=1,5 V i R=47 kW, which means that current flow is I=32 micro amperes, which is very low, so tested component is safe from harm from this device.
Oscillator's printed board design is on 12.2. This is viewed from the copper plated side of the board, components are placed on the other side, so their positions are marked in dotted lines. Component side of the board is on 12.2.
Printed
board, battery and the speaker are placed in a small box, as shown on
12.3. Miniature speaker is fixed to the upper pane of the box using two
wood screws. It is connected to the circuit board using two threaded
isolated wires. Same wires are used for all other connections as well.
Battery is connected to the board using these wires, for example. In
our example, wires are soldered directly to the poles of the battery,
and the board fixed inside of the box using wood screws and two
rectangular wooden pads glued to the bottom of the box, leaving just
enough space to squeeze the battery in. These are not proper solutions,
they are cheap “hacks” used when other options are limited. But these
are functional for people who always have their trusty soldering iron
at hand. What would be a proper solution? Buying a battery holder (with
enough battery slots as needed) or battery clips (for those square 9V
batteries) would simplify the process of changing the battery, although
this circuit is very low in power consumption. Other thing is plastic
or metal mounts for boards, these are pretty cheap and you should keep
them at hand in your “junk box” when experimenting with electronics.On
the front side of the box, we drilled two holes, one for the switch
and the other for wires which hold probes on their ends. Probes are
cheap components and come in various shapes and sizes with various
purposes in mind. Since we've been applying dirty methods, like
soldering the battery, there is no reason why we should back from
building our own probes now. Any old marker-pen will do, just slip
thicker copper wire through it's center, and sand/grind/cut protruding
ends into a pointy tip. It is advisable to make probes in different
colors, red and black are dominant standards for distinguishing them.
Positive probe (red) is connected to point A, and negative one (black)
is connected to the point B. You could use alligator clips instead of
probes, for example, this would leave your hands free for other
purposes, but for some precise testing of the on-board components, go
with the more precise probes we already mentioned.Give your new instrument the initial self-test (battery might be empty, or some other unexpected thing happened) by connecting the probe tips together. If sound is heard from the speaker, everything is fine and ready for work.
Ok, everything is working, now you want to play with your new toy. Check, for example, conductivity of your own body. Hold probe tips between thumb and index finger of your left and right hand. What you hear is a sound whose level and especially frequency depend on your skin moistness. Wow, now instrument could be used as a very crude an inaccurate lie detector. This probably wouldn't be accepted in a court of law, but may be an interesting game you play on your friends. “Suspect” holds in his/hers hands probes which could be made of a metal pipe for this occasion. Pipe should be wide enough so that a large portion of palm surface is actually in contact with metal. When the suspect starts dodging questions or lying, his palms start sweating more than usual, and the tone produced by our “lie detector” is higher than usual.
Semiconductors check
To test diodes using this circuit, we
fall back to the diode theory of operation: when anode is positive
comparing to the cathode (red probe on anode, black on cathode), whole
diode acts as a low value resistor, which means that speaker sound is
higher than usual. On the other hand, in the opposite direction, sound
is lower because in that direction diode acts as a high value resistor.
Testing process is shown on 12.4.
DC transistor acts in the same fashion
as two connected diodes (11.4a). If both diodes are functional,
transistor is functional as well as shown on 12.5. As you can see,
probe A is connected to the base, and then probe B is connected first
to the emitter, and then to the collector. In both cases, if the
transistor is ok, “music” would have been heard. We then switch probe
connections, A goes where B was connected to and vice versa, if there
is no music now, everything is in order. So, transistor is faulty if
speaker remains silent in the first two measurements, or if it “plays”
in one of the second two measurements.
FET testing is done in similar fashion as testing the bipolar transistors, which is shown on 12.6.
FET testing is done in similar fashion as testing the bipolar transistors, which is shown on 12.6.
One principle that is applicable when
testing the photo resistors, photo transistors and diodes is NL-NM (or,
No Light – No Music). Probe A is connected to the collector of the
transistor, or diode's anode or one side of the photo resistor, and the
other one is connected to transistor's emitter or diode's cathode or
the other resistor's side and some kind of sound should be heard from
the speaker. If this continues when the component is shadowed using
your palm, everything is in functional order. We displayed graphically
the method of testing photo sensitive components on 12.7.
Checking other components
Many other components may be tested using this instrument.
Base rule is: if component is intended to conduct electricity, sound
will be heard. This is the case with resistors, coils, transformers,
fuses, closed switches. If component doesn't conduct electricity, like
capacitors, or open switches, or two copper wires on the circuit board
which shouldn't be connected, then music would have not been heard.
When testing different resistors, it is apparent that different resistance values give different output sound. So with some experience using this instrument on various resistors it will be possible to tell the resistance of the resistor in question from only the generated sound. This may be easier and more accurately done using regular ohmmeter on your multimeter, but your nerd level will certainly rise sky high if you are able to tell resistor's value from bare sound.
Components which have coils in them, like different electro motors, headphones, speakers, transformers and such conduct electricity, so absence of sound while testing tells of some coil connection failure. With transformers with several secondary coils there is a possibility to find beginning and the end of each of them. And from the sound frequency one is possible to tell which coil is primary and which is secondary.
Functional capacitor will generate no music. An exception are electrolithic and block capacitors, especially the larger ones. Tone generated by connecting these capacitors to the instrument will change in level and frequency and fade until completely off when capacitor is discharged. Length of playing depends on the capacitance of the component, where higher values give longer sound time, which allows for a crude approximation of the component's capacitance.
When testing different resistors, it is apparent that different resistance values give different output sound. So with some experience using this instrument on various resistors it will be possible to tell the resistance of the resistor in question from only the generated sound. This may be easier and more accurately done using regular ohmmeter on your multimeter, but your nerd level will certainly rise sky high if you are able to tell resistor's value from bare sound.
Components which have coils in them, like different electro motors, headphones, speakers, transformers and such conduct electricity, so absence of sound while testing tells of some coil connection failure. With transformers with several secondary coils there is a possibility to find beginning and the end of each of them. And from the sound frequency one is possible to tell which coil is primary and which is secondary.
Functional capacitor will generate no music. An exception are electrolithic and block capacitors, especially the larger ones. Tone generated by connecting these capacitors to the instrument will change in level and frequency and fade until completely off when capacitor is discharged. Length of playing depends on the capacitance of the component, where higher values give longer sound time, which allows for a crude approximation of the component's capacitance.
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